Ocean Breathing

INTRODUCTION

The ocean connects every continent, but governing it is complex. Marine ecosystems cross national borders, fish populations migrate between jurisdictions and pollution can travel thousands of kilometres through currents and the atmosphere.

Coastal nations have rights and responsibilities over large areas of ocean adjacent to their shores. Beyond these national waters lies the high seas — areas beyond national jurisdiction that belong to no single country and require international cooperation.

Ocean governance is the collection of laws, institutions, agreements and management systems used to determine how humanity protects and uses the marine environment.

It includes fisheries management, shipping regulations, pollution controls, marine protected areas, seabed activities, scientific cooperation and the conservation of biodiversity.

Marine protected areas are one important part of this system. They can restrict or manage human activities in places considered important for biodiversity, habitats, spawning grounds, migration routes or ecosystem function.

But declaring an area protected does not automatically protect it. Effective conservation requires clear objectives, appropriate restrictions, scientific monitoring, enforcement, financing and cooperation with the people who depend on the ocean.

The future of ocean conservation therefore depends not only on identifying environmental problems, but on creating institutions capable of acting across borders and over generations.

WHY IT MATTERS

The ocean is interconnected. Fish, whales, turtles, seabirds, currents and pollution routinely cross political boundaries, meaning conservation cannot be achieved by individual countries acting alone.

Much of the ocean lies beyond national jurisdiction. International agreements are therefore essential for managing activities and protecting biodiversity in these areas.

Marine protected areas can conserve important ecosystems. When appropriately located, designed, managed and enforced, protected areas can reduce damaging activities and provide space for ecosystems to recover.

Protection quality matters as much as quantity. An area described as protected may still permit activities that significantly affect ecosystems. Conservation outcomes depend on the rules and whether those rules are actually enforced.

Ocean governance supports sustainable use. Fisheries, shipping, tourism, energy and conservation all depend on clear rules for how marine resources and spaces are used.

Local communities matter. Conservation measures are more likely to succeed when affected communities, Indigenous Peoples, scientists, governments and ocean users participate meaningfully in decision-making.

Governance determines whether scientific knowledge becomes action. Scientists can identify declining populations or damaged habitats, but laws, institutions, funding and enforcement are required to translate that knowledge into protection.

KEY FACTS

The ocean covers about 71% of Earth’s surface, making international cooperation essential for its management.

Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, coastal states can generally establish Exclusive Economic Zones extending up to 200 nautical miles from their baselines, within which they have sovereign rights concerning natural resources, subject to the Convention.

Areas beyond national jurisdiction account for roughly two-thirds of the ocean by surface area.

The international community has agreed on a global biodiversity target to effectively conserve and manage at least 30% of terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine areas by 2030. This is commonly known as the “30x30” target.

Protected area coverage alone does not measure conservation effectiveness. Location, ecological representation, connectivity, management quality and enforcement all influence outcomes.

The BBNJ Agreement addresses biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. It creates an international framework covering issues including marine genetic resources, area-based management tools such as marine protected areas, environmental impact assessments and capacity-building.

The BBNJ Agreement entered into force on 17 January 2026, creating a new legal framework under UNCLOS for conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction.

Ocean governance involves many different institutions. No single global organization manages every human activity occurring in the ocean.

The BBNJ Agreement reached the required threshold for entry into force in September 2025 and entered into force on 17 January 2026. United Nations — BBNJ Agreement

Main Threats

Weak or fragmented governance. Different activities can fall under different institutions, agreements and jurisdictions, making coordinated ecosystem management difficult.

Insufficient enforcement. Environmental rules have limited value when governments lack the resources, monitoring systems or political capacity required to enforce them.

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. IUU fishing can undermine fisheries management, threaten marine ecosystems and disadvantage fishers operating legally.

Protected areas with insufficient protection. Some designated marine protected areas allow significant extractive or damaging activities, limiting their conservation benefits.

Activities outside protected boundaries. Migratory species and ecological processes do not stop at lines drawn on maps. Pollution, fishing and climate change outside protected areas can still affect ecosystems within them.

Climate change. Species distributions and habitats are shifting as the ocean warms, meaning conservation boundaries designed around historical conditions may need to adapt.

Unequal capacity between countries. Effective ocean monitoring, research and enforcement require technology, expertise and financing that are not equally available worldwide.

Competing uses of ocean space. Fishing, shipping, tourism, conservation, renewable energy, resource extraction and other activities can create conflicts over how marine areas should be used.

Effective governance therefore requires more than creating rules. It requires cooperation, scientific evidence, transparency, resources and long-term implementation.

SOLUTIONS

Build effective marine protected-area networks. Protection should focus on ecologically important areas and consider representation, connectivity, climate resilience and ecosystem function.

Measure protection quality, not only area. Governments should evaluate what activities are permitted, whether regulations are enforced and whether ecosystems are actually improving.

Implement the global biodiversity framework. Achieving the 30x30 target should prioritize effective and equitable conservation rather than simply maximizing the number of square kilometres designated.

Implement the BBNJ Agreement effectively. The agreement creates new opportunities for international cooperation to protect biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction.

Strengthen monitoring and enforcement. Satellites, vessel tracking, electronic monitoring and other technologies can help identify illegal activities and improve transparency at sea.

Use marine spatial planning. Governments can map ecological priorities and human activities to make better decisions about conservation, fishing, shipping, energy and coastal development.

Improve international fisheries cooperation. Migratory and shared fish populations require management that extends across political boundaries.

Include local and Indigenous knowledge. Conservation planning can benefit from communities with generations of experience managing and observing marine environments.

Fund long-term conservation. Protected areas require sustained financing for staff, monitoring, enforcement, research and community participation.

Connect climate and biodiversity policy. Marine conservation strategies should anticipate changing temperatures, habitats, species distributions and sea levels rather than assuming ecosystems will remain geographically static.

WHAT YOU CAN DO

Support effective marine protection. Look beyond the percentage of ocean designated as protected and ask what activities are actually restricted and whether protections are enforced.

Support evidence-based ocean policy. Marine management works best when decisions use scientific monitoring, transparent data and clearly defined conservation objectives.

Learn where seafood comes from. Fisheries governance and enforcement influence whether seafood production is environmentally sustainable.

Support international cooperation. Many ocean problems cannot be solved within national borders. Treaties and international institutions are essential for shared waters and migratory species.

Pay attention to implementation. Governments frequently announce environmental targets. Meaningful progress depends on whether policies are funded, implemented, monitored and enforced.

Support organizations that protect the ocean. Scientific institutions, conservation organizations and community groups can contribute research, restoration, monitoring and policy expertise.

Participate in public decision-making. Coastal planning, marine protected areas and environmental policies often include opportunities for consultation and public participation.

Ask for transparency. Public access to information about fishing activity, protected areas, environmental impacts and government progress can strengthen accountability.

Think beyond national borders. The ocean is physically connected. Protecting it ultimately requires countries to treat marine biodiversity as a shared responsibility.

SOURCES

United Nations — BBNJ Agreement
Official information about the Agreement on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction.

United Nations — BBNJ Agreement

United Nations — Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
The central international legal framework governing rights and responsibilities across the world's oceans.

United Nations — UNCLOS

Convention on Biological Diversity — Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
The international biodiversity framework containing Target 3, including the goal of effectively conserving and managing at least 30% of terrestrial, inland-water, coastal and marine areas by 2030.

Convention on Biological Diversity — Global Biodiversity Framework

Protected Planet — Marine Protected Areas
Global information and datasets on protected and conserved areas maintained through UNEP-WCMC and IUCN.

Protected Planet

FAO — Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
Information about IUU fishing and international measures designed to combat it.

FAO — IUU Fishing

UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 — Life Below Water
International goals and targets concerning marine pollution, ecosystems, fisheries, conservation and sustainable ocean use.

United Nations — SDG 14: Life Below Water

Ocean Governance & Marine Protection